Save Tigers

Why should we save tigers?

At the turn of the 20th century, it is estimated that India probably had many thousands of tigers in the wild.

The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), Government of India, have been conducting tiger estimation surveys in partnership with NGOs. WWF-India was the key NGO partner of the WII and NTCA in conducting the comprehensive country-wide tiger estimation exercise in 2010-11, which revealed a mean tiger population estimate of 1,706.

Based on a census using the pug mark technique, the number of tigers in 2002 stood at 3,642. As per the 2008 tiger estimation exercise conducted by WII in association with the NTCA using camera traps, there were only 1,411 tigers left in the wild in India.

The tiger is not just a charismatic species or just another wild animal living in some far away forest.

The tiger is a unique animal which plays a pivotal role in the health and diversity of an ecosystem. It is a top predator which is at the apex of the food chain and keeps the population of wild ungulates in check, thereby maintaining the balance between prey herbivores and the vegetation upon which they feed. Therefore, the presence of tigers in the forest is an indicator of the well being of the ecosystem. The extinction of this top predator is an indication that its ecosystem is not sufficiently protected, and neither would it exist for long thereafter.

If the tigers go extinct, the entire system would collapse.

For e.g. when the Dodos went extinct in Mauritius, one species of Acacia tree stopped regenerating completely. So when a species goes extinct, it leaves behind a scar, which affects the entire ecosystem. Another reason why we need to save the tiger is that our forests are water catchment areas. 

Therefore, it’s not just about saving a beautiful animal. It is about making sure that we live a little longer as the forests are known to provide ecological services like clean air, water, pollination, temperature regulation etc.

Factors Influencing Agriculture

Factors Influencing Agriculture

Natural Factors

Climate:

All forms of agriculture are controlled largely by temperature. Areas deficient in heat are deficient in agriculture. For that is one element of climate that man has not been able to create at economic costs on a large scale. Temperature deter­mines the growth of vegetation through determining the length of the vegetative period.

Successful agriculture, therefore, requires a fairly long summer. In higher latitudes, however, the shortness of summer is compensated by the longer duration of the day. The total amount of heat received is enough for ripening of crops.

In lower latitudes where the winters are never too cold to arrest the growth of vegetation, practically the whole year is the growing period, and the agricultural operations are timed according to the supply of rainfall.

The moisture requirements of the plant vary according to the heat received. In the higher latitudes, where the summers are not very hot or where the winds are not dry, the amount of moisture given out by plant transpiration is less than in the lower latitudes where the heat received is great and the capacity of the winds to suck up moisture considerable.

The plants, therefore, require less moisture in the temperate regions than in the tropical regions. Thus, a certain amount of precipi­tation may be sufficient for flourishing agriculture in the temperate regions, while the same may not suffice for meager agriculture in the tropical regions.

Soil:

A rich soil in plant food is the chief requirement of successful agriculture. It is essential as a support for plants, and as the main medium whereby water and all plant foods, except carbon dioxide, are brought to the roots of the plants where they are absorbed. Soils that are poor, either chemically or in texture, have low productivity, both in amount and variety.

Topography:

Topography affects agriculture as it relates to soil erosion, difficulty of tillage and poor transportation facilities. Mechanization of agriculture depends entirely on the topography of land. On rough, hilly lands, the use of agricultural machinery is impossible.

In areas where the pressure on soil is great, even the slopes of mountains are terraced into small farms to provide agricultural land. In China, farm terraces may be seen clinging to hillsides to a height of several thousand feet. It is known that in extreme cases agriculture may succeed in conquering slopes of as much as 45 degrees.

Economic Factors

Market:

Relation to market generally determines the character of farming, for the cost of transport to the market will generally affect the competitive power of the agricultural output. Places away from the market will generally grow such things which can afford the cost of transport to the market.

Places near large centers of population generally develop market gardening and produce easily perishable goods which can be transported to the market for short distances without much damage.

Transportation Facilities:

In commercial type of farming transportation facilities play a significant role. Indeed they determine its genus. In regions far flung from markets and ill-equipped with transportation facilities commercial farming is a remote possi­bility. The term ‘truck farming’ bears the unmistakable influence of transportation facilities on agriculture.

The economic history of the world records the changes in agriculture patterns as induced by transportation facilities. Improvements in the realm of transportation and communication have rendered possible regional specialisation and thus made feasible fuller utilisation of the peculiar features of the specific soils and climates.

Labour:

Labour supply determines the character of agriculture. Intensive agriculture is essentially labour-intensive and exemplifies the human pressure on land.

Agriculture requires skilled labour that can appreciate the subtle relations of seasons and soils with crops and adopt the requisite cultural practices. Again, it is the supply of agricultural labour that determines the timely sowing, harvesting and other cultural practices and ensures good returns.

Capital:

The modern mechanised farming has become capital-intensive to a large extent. The occidental farmer has to invest large amount of capital in agriculture because he has to buy agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers. 

Social Factors

Social factors affect farming in a number of ways. The type of farming practiced, be it shifting cultivation, subsistence farming, extensive cereal cultivation or mixed farming, etc., is always related to regional social structure. Social factors can also affect the type of crops that are grown.

These factors are more effective in tribal cultures. Another way in which social factors can affect agriculture is in the ownership and inheritance of land. In many parts of the world the land of a father is divided between his children. This leads to the breaking up of already small farms into smaller units which are often uneconomic to farm, as in case of India.

Political Factors

Political factors also play a vital role in agricultural development. The political system, i.e., capitalistic, communist or socialistic system determines the pattern of agriculture. For example in China, agriculture is fully controlled by government; similar was the case of former USSR. On the other hand, in USA, Canada and in most of the other countries of the world, agriculture is a private concern.

The government policies regarding land, irrigation, marketing and trade, etc., have a direct impact on agriculture. Similarly, subsidies, loan policy, purchase policies, agricultural marketing and international trade and tax policy of the government also have a direct impact on agricultural production and its development.

Nomadic Techniques For Survival

Nomadic Techniques For Survival

Desert nomads survive in harsh desert climates by continuously moving to find water and grazing land for livestock. Some nomadic tribes survive by raising livestock for milk and meat. Other nomadic cultures like the Touareg are known for creating trade routes across desert sands.

The nomadic way of life involves constant relocation. For nomads in the desert, this is especially the case. Harsh weather conditions and shifting water tables create limited resources. Some nomadic tribes, like the Chalbi nomads, raise cattle, goats and sheep to sustain their way of life. The quest for water and grazing land is essential for these nomadic tribes as a single parcel of ground in the desert cannot sustain livestock for long. After even a short stay, the small amount of water and plant life runs out, forcing these tribes to move to a new location. Some tribes, like the Touareg, focus on trade for survival. Nomadic traders move even more often than nomadic tribes raising livestock. The essential motivation for a nomadic lifestyle rests on water and resources, but nomadic traders use this skill as an advantage to create trade between cultures and people unable to cross the wide desert expanses.

Most nomadic desert tribes have perfected methods of surviving including the use of camels or other specialized beasts of burden, the construction of easily assembled and dismantled shelters and the design of light-weight garments that protect individuals from the sand and sun. 

Coal Its Uses And Production Process

Coal [ Uses and Production]

Uses

Coal has many important uses worldwide. The most significant uses of coal are in electricity generation, steel production, cement manufacturing and as a liquid fuel. 

Different types of coal have different uses.

• Steam coal - also known as thermal coal - is mainly used in power generation.
• Coking coal - also known as metallurgical coal - is mainly used in steel production.

Other important users of coal include alumina refineries, paper manufacturers, and the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Several chemical products can be produced from the by-products of coal. Refined coal tar is used in the manufacture of chemicals, such as creosote oil, naphthalene, phenol, and benzene. Ammonia gas recovered from coke ovens is used to manufacture ammonia salts, nitric acid and agricultural fertilisers. Thousands of different products have coal or coal by-products as components: soap, aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics and fibres, such as rayon and nylon. 

Coal is also an essential ingredient in the production of specialist products:

• Activated carbon - used in filters for water and air purification and in kidney dialysis machines.
• Carbon fibre - an extremely strong but light weight reinforcement material used in construction, mountain bikes and tennis rackets.
• Silicon metal - used to produce silicones and silanes, which are in turn used to make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair shampoos and toothpastes.

Production

At Griffin Coal, coal production takes place through a five step process to deliver a quality product with a focus on reducing long term environmental impact.
The five steps of the coal production process include:

Step 1. Exploration & Development

The first stage to any coal production operation is exploration and development. This takes place to locate and determine the most appropriate methodology to extract the mineral.

Exploration and development involves the combined efforts of geologists, geotechnical engineers, mining engineers, coal technologists and surveyors.

The geologist is responsible for defining the shape, size and quality of the coal reserves and for producing a computer model.

This model is used by the mining engineers to plan and manage the mining process taking into consideration:

• Mine wall stability.
• Scheduling of coal production at a consistent rate and quality.
• Controlling groundwater seepage and rainwater runoff.
• Mining block and backfill designs for minimal possible overburden removal distance.
• Optimising equipment deployment and productivity.
• Minimising operational interruptions.
• Optimising drill and blast practices.

Surveyors support both the geologists and mining engineers by ensuring that the data required for deposit modelling is correctly gathered in the first instance. Surveyors also confirm that the engineers’ mine plans are accurately reflected in the mine development.

As Griffin Coal’s mining occurs in soft, saturated sediments, sometimes at great depth, Griffin Coal has had to achieve high standards of professionalism in the above disciplines.

Step 2. Mining

Mining can take place through open cut or underground mining methods. At Griffin Coal’s Collie mines open cut mining methods are used. The mining process involves the removal of overburden and extraction of coal but can be considered as four distinct operations:

1. Topsoil

Topsoil is removed ahead of mining and either spread directly on shaped rehabilitation areas or stockpiled for later use. This operation is performed using dozers, front end loaders and trucks.

2. Laterite

The cap rock (up to 2 metres thick) is either ‘ripped’ by dozers or blasted and recovered for use as road surfacing material.

3. Overburden

All overburden apart from the ‘Nakina Formation’ is drilled with rotary ‘blast hole’ drilling rigs and charged with bulk explosive, typically a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO).

After blasting, overburden is loaded by hydraulic excavator or front end loader into rear dump trucks and placed in overburden dumps. Initially these had to be placed out of the pit in order to create a large enough hole to work in. The worked over areas of the pit are now filled in, a process known as backfilling.

When the mine gets to the back firing stage, the hole gets bigger and moves slowly across the deposit. Then overburden materials are removed from the operating faces and dumped into backfill on the other side of the mine.

In its operations, Griffin Coal places all overburden into mined out areas and focuses on the rehabilitation of the newly created final land surface.

4. Coal

When overburden has been removed from the coal seam, the roof of the seam is cleaned using bulldozers. The coal seam is then drilled and blasted. Bulldozers clean down to the floor of the coal seam and front end loaders and coal trucks transport coal to either the Ewington Crushing Facility or direct to Muja Power Station.

In some areas, coal can be loaded directly into trucks using a large backhoe, without need for bulldozing. Once the coal has been extracted it is then processed.

Step 3. Processing

Processing involves crushing, screening and beneficiation.

Processing takes place at Griffin Coal’s Ewington Mine. It is a process wherein coal is converted from Run of Mine to a product that meets the customer’s requirement.

Crushing

Mined coal can include lumps up to a metre in size, so crushing to a manageable size is required. Coal crushing can include a two stage process dependant on deposit size.

Crush One: Feeder Breaker

Coal is crushed in a feeder breaker, a chain conveyor under a toothed drum that breaks the biggest lumps.

Crush Two: Sizer

Coal size is further reduced through a sizer, where each oversize particles are reduced to less than 75 millimetres.

Screening

Screening is used to separate different sizes of crushed coal. In this process coarse and fine coal is separated so to accommodate for specific markets and industrial usage. Screening takes place at a processing plant adjacent to Ewington Mine.

Griffin Coal’s screened coal is ideal for burning in horizontal kilns. In these kilns uniform particle grading is used to create even combustion along the length of the kiln. Coarser coal is also required by customers who burn coal in grate–fired applications.

Beneficiation/Washing

Beneficiation has been trialled at Ewington. During beneficiation, coal is processed to remove impurities reducing ash and sulphur thereby improving the market value of the coal. Beneficiation can improve the quality of contaminated coal that would otherwise be wasted.

Most cleaning processes involve washing the coal in order to separate coal particles from stone particles as coal is considerably lighter.

Charring

Coal can be charred, a process wherein hydrogen and oxygen are removed from the coal to make it purer form of carbon. Once processed according to specifications, coal is loaded and transported accordingly.

Step 4. Loading & Transportation

At Muja, ROM coal is delivered directly to the adjacent Muja Power Station.

Preparation of coal for sale to industrial customers is an integral aspect of Ewington operations. Coal preparation involves crushing, screening and loading trucks and trains. A variety of products are produced to specification for size and quality.

All coal consignments are sampled to Australian and International Standards and analysis is undertaken by an independent NATA accredited laboratory.

At this point it is important to rehabilitate the environment so as to return it to its natural state.

Step 5. Rehabilitation

Mine site rehabilitation is important to environmental sustainability. Rehabilitation involves returning the land to it’s natural state post mining through strict, well researched strategies of revegetation and the regeneration of natural ecosystems. Work to restore disturbed areas is carried out progressively as soon as practicable.

Griffin Coal’s environmental commitment includes the progressive rehabilitation of its mining operations. The objective of mine rehabilitation is to create a structurally stable landform capable of future productive use.

Rehabilitation also occurs to return land to a scale and morphology similar to that which exists elsewhere in the Collie Basin.

Rehabilitation involves a comprehensive process of classifying overburden material, land recontouring, seeding and regeneration.

1. Overburden Material Classification

Overburden material is classified according to its potential to cause geochemical impacts (acid rock drainage) on the environment. Dumping of waste material is undertaken so the best materials end up near the surface of waste landforms and the other material is encapsulated in the middle.

2. Land Recontouring

When the landforms are no longer needed for mining or dumping purposes the slopes are recontoured to around 10 degrees to control surface runoff and to ensure a stable slope. Topsoil is then spread to a depth of 150 millimetres before the area is contour ripped, fertilised and seeded with local natives.

3. Seeding

Rehabilitation areas are seeded at the break of the winter rainy season, and initially are susceptible to erosion damage until germination and root development has occurred. Historically dumps were rehabilitated to pasture species. This approach was chosen to stabilise the dump outslope quickly to prevent erosion. More recently efforts have been directed to the re-establishment of native flora.

4. Regeneration

Native species do not germinate and develop until the following spring, therefore the potential for massive erosion is present during the winter. A strategy has been developed whereby native bush species comprising grasses, groundcovers, shrubs and trees, are sown together with a “nurse” crop of cereal rye.

The cereal rye germinates quickly and stabilises the surface through the winter and the natives emerge the following spring. The seed mix includes Jarrah, Wandoo, Flooded Gum, numerous Acacias and understorey species.

Sources : worlcoal.com and griffincoal.com

The Availability Of Fresh Water On The Earth

The Availability Of Fresh Water on The 'EARTH'

Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.

What is 'Surface Water' ? 

The Nation's surface-water resources—the water in the nation's rivers, streams, creeks, lakes, and reservoirs—are vitally important to our everyday life. The main uses of surface water include drinking-water and other public uses, irrigation uses, and for use by the thermoelectric-power industry to cool electricity-generating equipment. The majority of water used for thermoelectric power, public supply, irrigation, mining, and industrial purposes came from surface-water sources.

Ground Water

Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.